Medieval philosophy flourished between approximately 500-1500 CE across four main traditions: Greek/Byzantine, Latin, Arabic/Islamic, and Jewish. While sharing common roots in the Platonic schools of late antiquity, each tradition developed its own distinctive philosophical style shaped by key figures, texts, and themes.

Greek/Byzantine Philosophy

The Greek or Byzantine tradition represents a continuous engagement with ancient Greek philosophy within the eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople. With direct access to the Platonic and Aristotelian corpus, Byzantine thinkers focused on writing commentaries while integrating Christian theology and Greek philosophy.

Several currents shaped Byzantine philosophy:

• The pagan Neoplatonist tradition of philosophers like Plotinus and Proclus who sought mystical union with the One.

• Greek patristic authors like Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Pseudo-Dionysius who combined Christian theology with Neoplatonist metaphysics.

• Aristotelian logicians of the 6th century like John Philoponus who challenged Aristotle’s views.

• Hesychasts who practiced mystical prayer and supported teachings on God’s essence and energies.

Two approaches dominated Byzantine thought. First was an encyclopedic effort to compile and summarize classical knowledge, represented by Photius’s 9th century Bibliotheca. Second was a tradition focused on reconciling Christianity and Hellenic philosophy, exemplified by Pseudo-Dionysius’s works fusing Neoplatonism with Christian angels and ecclesiology.

Key figures include:

• John Philoponus (c.490–c.570): Christian philosopher who challenged Aristotle on doctrines like the eternity of the world. Wrote Against Aristotle on the Eternity of the World.

• Photius (c.810–893): Patriarch of Constantinople and renowned scholar. Compiled the Bibliotheca, a massive encyclopedia of ancient learning.

• Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (fl. c.500): Unknown Christian Neoplatonist author of influential works such as The Divine Names and Mystical Theology.

• Maximus the Confessor (c.580–662): Byzantine monk and theologian who expanded on Pseudo-Dionysius’s Neoplatonic metaphysics. Championed the distinction between God’s essence and energies.

• John of Damascus (c.675–749): Important early Byzantine theologian who helped reconcile classical philosophy and Christian doctrine. Wrote Fount of Knowledge which became influential in both Byzantium and western Europe.

• Gregory Palamas (1296–1359): Monk and archbishop associated with a resurgence in hesychasm. Developed teachings on the essence-energies distinction in God.

Major themes in Byzantine thought include:

• Harmonizing Christian theology and Greek philosophy while subordinating the latter.

• Debates over the respective limits of reason versus revelation and faith versus knowledge.

• Exploring negative or apophatic theology emphasizing God’s ineffability.

• Defending hesychastic practices of mystical contemplative prayer.

• Preserving ancient Greek philosophical knowledge, both pagan and patristic.

Latin Philosophy

The Latin tradition represents the continuous development of Christian philosophy in western Europe following the collapse of Roman power. Dominated by Augustinian Platonism at first, it became increasingly Aristotelian by the 13th century due to new translations from Greek and Arabic. Latin philosophy is also called scholasticism due to its academic context in cathedral schools and later medieval universities.

Early medieval Latin philosophy from 500-1100 was largely focused on the seven liberal arts curriculum grounded in grammar, rhetoric, and especially logic, as presented in works by authors like Martianus Capella, Cassiodorus, and Isidore of Seville. Boethius provided the main sources for logic with his commentaries and translations of Aristotle and Porphyry. Boethius also wrote the profoundly influential Consolation of Philosophy and theological treatises.

The Carolingian Renaissance beginning under Charlemagne produced scholars like John Scottus Eriugena, Ratramnus, Remigius, and Hincmar who further shaped early medieval thought. Eriugena’s Periphyseon, which drew on Pseudo-Dionysius and Gregory of Nyssa, was a major contribution. Other influences included Augustine, Macrobius, Martianus Capella, and Latin patristic authors.

Key figures during this period include:

• Boethius (c.477–524): Roman scholar and leading patron of learning. Translated Aristotle’s logic into Latin and wrote widely on philosophy and theology. His Consolation of Philosophy was highly influential.

• John Scottus Eriugena (c.810–c.877): Irish-born Carolingian scholar. Major work was Periphyseon which creatively synthesized Neoplatonism and Christian thought.

• Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109): Pioneering philosopher and theologian, known for his “ontological argument” for God’s existence and his work on free will and the atonement.

Scholasticism developed in the late 11th century as urbanization led to the growth of cathedral schools. Two main strands emerged:

• A dialectical approach associated with masters like Roscelin, Abelard, and the 12th century school of Chartres that used logic, linguistic analysis, and debate to clarify theological problems.

• A monastic approach drawing on Anselm’s Augustinian method of faith seeking understanding (fides quaerens intellectum), practiced by thinkers like Anselm of Laon, Rupert of Deutz, and Hugh of St. Victor.

Peter Abelard epitomized early scholasticism with his Sic et Non that compiled contradictions between authorities, and his ethical and theological works that applied logic and critical analysis to reconcile disagreements. Other important 12th century figures include Gilbert of Poitiers, Thierry of Chartres, William of Conches, and John of Salisbury.

From the late 12th century, Aristotle’s natural philosophy became available through Latin translations, revolutionizing scholasticism. Translations of Greek and Arabic sources also introduced new influences. Dominican and Franciscan orders dominated 13th century scholasticism with eminent theologians like Albert the Great, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus integrating this “new” learning.

Scholasticism peaked as an academic endeavor in the 14th-15th centuries at institutions like the University of Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, and the University of Padua, producing major thinkers like William of Ockham, John Buridan, and Marsilius of Padua. It remained vital even longer in Spain with the 16th century School of Salamanca.

Key developments in Latin scholasticism include:

• The recovery and translation of the complete works of Aristotle as well as Arabic and Greek commentaries.

• Debates over the relationship between faith and reason, and tensions between theology and philosophy.

• Elaborating an Aristotelian natural philosophy now seen compatible with Christian doctrine.

• Developing speculative theology employing Aristotelian metaphysics and logic.

• Expanding logic to treat semantics, obligations, paradoxes and insolubles.

Arabic/Islamic Philosophy

Arabic philosophy represents the tradition of rational inquiry influenced by classical Greek thought that flourished in the Islamic world from the 9th to 12th centuries. Known as falsafa, it was pursued by Muslim, Jewish, and Christian thinkers writing in Arabic. The tradition emphasized Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism rather than Plato.

The main impetus for falsafa was the large-scale project sponsored by the Abbasid Caliphs to translate Greek philosophical and scientific texts into Arabic, beginning in the 8th century. This corpus provided the basis for Islamic scholars to engage deeply with ancient thought, especially Aristotle’s logic, physics, metaphysics and ethics. Islamic philosophers saw themselves as inheritors of Greek philosophy and strove to expand this heritage.

Arabic philosophy coexisted in tension with Kalam, the tradition of Islamic theology aiming to elaborate orthodox doctrine through dialectical argumentation. Some falsafa thinkers like al-Farabi sought to distance themselves from kalam.

Prominent falsafa scholars include:

• Al-Kindi (c.801–873): Pioneering Arabic philosopher known as the “first philosopher of the Arabs.” Wrote influential treatises integrating Greek thought into Islamic culture.

• Al-Farabi (c.872–951): Highly influential philosopher who helped establish falsafa. Major works include The Perfect State modeling Plato’s Republic and The Principles of the Views of the Citizens of the Virtuous City analyzing types of religious discourse.

• Avicenna (980–1037): One of the most important medieval philosophers. Systematized Aristotle’s thought in works like The Cure and The Book of Healing. Developed influential accounts of logic, metaphysics, psychology and ethics.

• Averroes (1126–1198): Andalusian philosopher known for extensive commentaries on Aristotle that proved highly influential in Latin Europe. Prominent advocate of philosophical reason within Islam.

Avicenna in particular was a towering figure who reworked Aristotle’s philosophy into his own coherent system. His Neoplatonic metaphysics integrated concepts like emanation into Aristotelian cosmology while making philosophical arguments for Islamic theology. Avicenna’s writings became foundational for future falsafa.

The 12th century saw increased tensions around philosophy’s conformity with Islamic orthodoxy, for instance in al-Ghazali’s influential critiques. But falsafa continued to develop in eastern regions under influential post-classical philosophers like al-Razi, al-Tusi, Ibn Khaldun, and al-Dawani.

Key themes and concepts in falsafa include:

• Applying Aristotelian philosophy while integrating Neoplatonic metaphysics.

• Developing logical, natural, and metaphysical sciences using demonstration.

• Exploring the relationship between philosophical reason and religious faith.

• Debating determinism and human freedom.

• Defending the legitimacy of astrology and esoteric sciences.

Jewish Philosophy

Medieval Jewish philosophy represents Jewish engagement with Greek thought and falsafa in the Islamic world from the 9th to 15th centuries. While employing Greek philosophical concepts and methods, Jewish thinkers aimed to harmonize them with faith and Scripture.

The Jewish falsafa tradition began under the Abbasid Caliphate with Saadiah Gaon’s Book of Beliefs and Opinions written in Arabic. Saadiah combined kalām methods and Mu’tazilite theology with rabbinic Judaism to defend articles of faith. Rabbi Hai Gaon, Samuel ibn Naghrela, Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Bahya ibn Paquda were other influential early Jewish philosophers in Islamic lands.

The greatest figure was undoubtedly Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), whose life work synthesized Judaism with Aristotelian philosophy. His influential treatises include the Commentary on the Mishnah and his code of Jewish law Mishneh Torah. In Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides aimed to reconcile Judaism with Aristotelian thought on issues like creation, providence, prophecy, and the afterlife. He became the central figure in later Jewish Aristotelianism.

Later Jewish philosophy flourished under Christian rule in Western Europe, where thinkers like Gersonides, Crescas, and Ovadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro grappled with tensions between Maimonides’s philosophical rationalism and traditionalist critics. Gersonides’ Wars of the Lord systematically presented Judaism’s philosophical underpinnings. Crescas’s Light of the Lord attacked Aristotelianism to defend Judaic principles.

Key themes and concepts include:

• Using Greek philosophy to explicate Jewish theology and Law.

• Debating the limits of human knowledge versus revelation.

• Explaining apparent contradictions between Scripture and Aristotelian thought.

• Defending core doctrines like creation against Aristotelian eternity of the world.

• Exploring Providence and theodicy within a monotheistic framework.

• Harmonizing Aristotle’s metaphysics and natural philosophy with the Bible.

The four traditions of medieval philosophy remained interconnected through extensive translation efforts and intellectual exchanges, ensuring a lively cross-pollination of ideas. While diverse in many respects, they jointly represent the medieval flowering of Greek thought and methods within the Abrahamic religious context.