Medieval philosophy encompasses the philosophical thought that emerged in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages, roughly from the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century CE to the Renaissance in the 15th century CE. While this period was characterized by deep religiosity and theology often guided philosophical inquiry, medieval philosophers engaged with questions and ideas that remain relevant today.
To understand medieval philosophy, we must first examine its foundations in the schools of late antiquity that served as a bridge between ancient Greek philosophy and the medieval traditions that emerged from it. We can then survey the key sources that provided the roots for the four main traditions of medieval philosophy: Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Jewish. This provides the background for appreciating the rich intellectual landscape of the Middle Ages.
Platonic Schools of Late Antiquity
The starting point for medieval philosophy lies in the Platonic schools that flourished in Athens and Alexandria during the last centuries of antiquity. The Athenian school was founded by Plato in the 4th century BCE and sought to systematize his philosophy. The Alexandrian school, established in the 3rd century BCE, focused more on science and became the major center for the study of Aristotle.
By the 3rd century CE, these schools were dominated by a new metaphysical system developed by Plotinus (204–270 CE) known as Neoplatonism. Plotinus drew on Plato but went far beyond him in constructing an emanationist hierarchy, with increasing levels of reality cascading from the transcendent One down to the material world.
Plotinus’ student Porphyry (c. 234–c. 305 CE) introduced a reconciliation of Plato with Aristotle. He held that Aristotle’s thought applied to the material realm, while Plato articulated knowledge of the higher, immaterial realm. This made Aristotle’s works foundational in the Neoplatonist curriculum, paving the way for their central role in medieval thought.
The influence of these late ancient schools derived from their maintenance of the Greek philosophical tradition through centuries of political turmoil. As Pierre Hadot has shown, their mission was not textual study but spiritual transformation through engagement with philosophical discourse. This gave their thought a religious character that made Neoplatonism an important bridge to medieval traditions.
Other Key Sources
While the Platonic schools provided the shared roots, each of the four medieval traditions drew on other key sources particular to their religious and cultural heritage.
Byzantine Philosophy was shaped by the Greek patristic tradition, including Church Fathers such as Origen (c.184-c.253), Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–c. 395), and John of Damascus (c. 675–749). Their Christian Neoplatonism exerted an important influence on Byzantine thought.
Latin Philosophy owed much to the unique vision of Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whose Confessions and City of God framed issues of faith and reason for the medieval West. Boethius (c.477–524) also played a pivotal role by transmitting Aristotle’s logic while articulating problems of fate and free will.
Arabic/Islamic Philosophy emerged from engagement with the Greek rational tradition mediated by translations into Arabic sponsored under the Abbasid Caliphate. An indigenous theological tradition known as Kalam, which sought to articulate Islamic doctrines rationally, also impacted early Islamic philosophy.
Jewish Philosophy was rooted in the exegetical traditions of biblical and Talmudic scholarship. Figures such as Saadia Gaon (882–942) brought the methods of Kalam to Jewish thought, while later philosophers like Maimonides (1138–1204) drew extensively on Arabic falsafa and Aristotelianism.
With this background in the shared lineage of late ancient Platonism and key particular sources, we can proceed to survey the main contours of thought across the four medieval traditions.
Greek/Byzantine Philosophy
Byzantine philosophy refers to the philosophical tradition that emerged following the founding of Constantinople as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire in 330 CE. Dominated by Greek culture and language, the Byzantine Empire preserved the heritage of ancient Greek philosophy over the course of the Middle Ages.
Two broad currents can be distinguished in Byzantine philosophy. The first draws directly on late antique Neoplatonism and the Greek patristic tradition in developing a Christianized metaphysical philosophy expressed in texts by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor. The second current consists of scholarship focused on explicating pagan Greek philosophical texts, especially Aristotle.
These two currents came into conflict in the 11th century, when thinkers such as John Italos (c. 1025–c.1085) and Eustratius of Nicaea (c.1050–c.1120) were condemned for allowing Hellenic influences to detract from Orthodox doctrine. This led to a suppression of creative Aristotelian scholarship.
In the 14th century, a revival of pagan Greek philosophy was spearheaded by Gemistus Plethon (c.1355–1452), who advocated a return to Plato and the revival of the Greek polytheistic religion. But this program remained marginal within Byzantine society.
On the whole, Byzantine philosophy can be seen as rethinking the ancient Greek tradition within a Christian framework determined by church doctrine and mysticism. The works of late ancient Neoplatonists, patristic authors, and Aristotle were the recurrent touchstones for this philosophical project.
Latin Philosophy
Medieval Latin philosophy emerged as early Christian thinkers in the Roman West appropriated pagan Greek philosophy while developing doctrines and positions based on Christian revelation and ecclesiastical authority.
The earliest influence came through the Church Fathers writing in Latin, including Tertullian (c.160-c.225), Ambrose (337-397), and most importantly Augustine of Hippo, whose works such as his Confessions provided a touchstone for medieval Christian thought.
Boethius (c.477-524) contributed hugely to the transmission of ancient philosophy by translating works of Aristotle and Porphyry while composing highly influential original treatises like his Consolation of Philosophy. His logical textbooks shaped the tradition of medieval logic.
From the 6th through 8th centuries, little progress was made as barbarian invasions disrupted Roman civilization in Western Europe. But under the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries, efforts were made to renew literary, artistic, and philosophical culture. Key figures from this period include Alcuin (c.735-804) and John Scottus Eriugena (c.810-877), whose audacious mystical philosophy sought to unify Neoplatonism with Christian doctrine.
Scholasticism emerged as the dominant medieval philosophy in the late 11th century as urbanization re-energized intellectual culture. Using the tools of Aristotelian logic, scholastic thinkers sought to articulate a rational systematization of theology and probe arguments on controverted questions. This style of philosophy progressed from early figures like Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) and Peter Abelard (1079-1142) to the mature scholasticism of the 13th century universities.
Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–1274) exemplifies the university scholastics at their peak, carefully expounding a Christian Aristotelianism that harmonized faith and reason. John Duns Scotus (c.1266-1308) initiated a more skeptical turn which was amplified in the 14th century by William of Ockham (c.1287-1347). Scholastic habits and texts retained cultural dominance through the late medieval period and into the Renaissance.
Arabic/Islamic Philosophy
Arabic philosophy refers to philosophical thought written in the Arabic language. It emerged in the Islamic civilization that developed after the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. While not all Arabic philosophy was the work of Muslims, Islamic religion exerted an indelible influence.
The first Arabic philosophers emerged in the 9th century, including al-Kindi (c.801–873) and the Sincere Brethren such as al-Rāzī (854–925). But the greatest figure was al-Fārābī (c.872-950), who initiated the Peripatetic school of Arabic Aristotelianism.
This tradition culminated in the monumental output of Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna, 980–1037), who creatively modified Aristotle’s thought into an original metaphysical scheme centered on a single Necessary Being from which emanates the order of creation.
Working in Spain, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198) wrote influential commentaries that aimed to return to Aristotle’s original texts and extricate his philosophy from its Neoplatonic accretions.
In the eastern lands of Islam, al-Ghazālī (1058–1111) constituted a more religious response to Avicennan philosophy in his spiritual autobiography Deliverance from Error and critique The Incoherence of the Philosophers.
While creative philosophers waned after the 12th century, Avicenna remained hugely influential for centuries, especially in the eastern lands of Persia and Transoxania. Mystical and theological thought engaged with this matured philosophical tradition.
Jewish Philosophy
Medieval Jewish philosophy was shaped through confluence with the Arabic and Latin philosophical traditions. Writing in Judeo-Arabic, thinkers like Saadiah Gaon (882–942) and Solomon ibn Gabirol (c.1021–1058) reflected Arabic Kalam theology and falsafa philosophy.
Moses Maimonides (c.1135-1204) brought Arabic Aristotelianism into Jewish thought, notably in his masterwork Guide of the Perplexed, which fosters conformity between divine revelation and philosophical truth.
Later Jewish philosophy flowered in Christian Europe with figures such as Gersonides (1288–1344) and Hasdai Crescas (c.1340-1411) writing primarily in Hebrew. They engaged closely with Arabic philosophers, especially Averroes, but were also exposed to Latin scholasticism.
Medieval Jewish philosophy exhibits tension between adherence to religious tradition and appropriation of foreign wisdom. But this encounter also yielded creative syntheses that enriched philosophical discourse in both the Arabic and Latin spheres.
This brief survey shows medieval philosophy was no mere static extension of ancient thought, but rather a dynamic tradition fertilized by exchanges across religious boundaries. The following sections will delve deeper into the problems and arguments that exemplify medieval thought at its most vibrant.
In summary, the foundations of medieval philosophy lie in the late ancient Platonic schools serving as a conduit for Greek thought, complemented by other key sources particular to each of the four main philosophical traditions. Together, these influences laid the basis for centuries of sophisticated philosophy that emerged from the European and Islamic cultural spheres during the Middle Ages. Grasping these foundations sets the stage for appreciating the singular contributions of medieval thought.
